We use a broad definition of wetlands, building on that adopted by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance ( ), to include areas covered with water, whether freshwater, brackish or saline permanent or temporary standing or flowing including surface water and groundwater. Within the desert matrix, the complex hydrogeology and climate interacts to create endorheic and exorheic basins with a diversity of wetlands. The region is highly influenced by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), causing episodes of below average precipitation and warmer than normal air temperatures, with opposite conditions prevailing during La Niña (Garreaud and Aceituno 2001). Diel temperature variation can reach 25° and wind gusts can exceed 30 m/s (Aceituno 1996). Climate is considered semi-arid to hyper-arid, with most of the region receiving less than 400 mm of precipitation a year in a gradient from higher rainfall in the west (300–600 mm) to lower in the east (60–150 mm) (Morales et al. The > 400,000 km 2 area defined by rugged topography with expanses of level areas surrounded by volcanoes and snow-capped peaks encompasses the Central Andean Puna ecoregions (Olson et al. The high Andean plateau or altiplano is located between the Oriental (eastern) and Occidental (western) mountain ranges in western South America, extending between approximately 16°S and 28°S at an elevation between 35 m.a.s.l., and is second only to the Tibetan Plateau in surface and altitude (Garreaud et al. While the transition to “green” energy sources holds the promise of mitigating the negative impacts of traditional energy sources responsible for climate change, a truly sustainable energy sector would consider the full life cycle of the battery (“cradle-to-grave”), the social and environmental impacts of mining, and the feedback processes across the coupled socioecological systems, from raw material mining through production, use, recycling, and disposal. A review of the Environmental Impact Reports (IIAs) for projects in Catamarca, Argentina, shows that they do not comply with national guidelines: they do not adequately address water budgets, consider protected area status, engage local communities, or consider cumulative and synergistic impacts. Since 2016, mining exploration has increased throughout the region, most notably in Argentina. Flamingos are an ideal flagship for conservation because of the landscape scale at which they use wetlands, and Network of Wetlands for Flamingo Conservation, which implies the sustainable use of these wetlands, can be invoked to determine priority conservation actions. The “lithium triangle” coincides with the areas of highest abundance of the altiplano’s iconic flamingos. In these waterscapes, the water balance, even without human intervention, is negative and their unique biodiversity and lifeways are now confronted with an unprecedented level of development from lithium mining for rechargeable batteries. Within the desert matrix, basins contain wetlands that provide essential resources for human activity, and habitat for biodiversity highly adapted to extreme temperatures, altitudes, and salinity gradients. The high Andean arid plateau extends through Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile.
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